Katrina

Katrina

The Mesoamerican civilization known as the Inca Empire was located in the Andes mountains of what is now Peru, Ecuador, and Chile. It's earliest beginnings date to 1100 A.D. when a small warlike tribe began to move into the valley of Cuzco.

were they live and what they eat shelter and clthes ||  || The Inca citizens farmed crops such as corn, potatoes, coffee, and grain (quinoa). The Inca's food was mainly what they produced and things such as chuño (freeze-dried potatoes) and chicha (corn juice beer). They wore clothes that suited their climate. In the highlands, the Inca people wore clothes made of alpaca and llamas wool. In the coastal regions the Inca wore clothes made of cotton. Nobles usually wore garments made of fine cloth and were adorned with jewelry of fine metals. The normal wear of all the citizens in average weather was interesting. Men wore loincloths and tunics and capes in cold weather. Women wore long dresses and square shawls called mantas over their shoulders. Both men and women wore sandals and colorful sashes. Extended families of grandparents and the current generations all stayed in the same small house. The houses were made of adobe with rocks and a mud-grass mixed together. The nobles lived in very lavish, spacious, and richly decorated stone palaces. there land The Inca empire stretched north to south along the Andean range from Colombia to Chile and reached west to east from the Atacama desert to the Amazonian rain forest. The Incas called their empire the "Land of the Four Quaters" or the Tahuantinsuyu Empire. Because their land ranged along high mountainous areas, the Incas daily life was spent at altitudes up to 15,000 feet and ritual life up to 22,057 feet. There were also roads extending through the mountains which perplexes scients today because it must have been very difficult for the Incas to haul soil, and rocks to such incredible hights. The road system stretched almost the entire length of the South American Pacific Coast. They actually had two road systems, one in the mountains and one along the coast, which ran 2,200 miles each. The built 19,000 miles of road and bridges which took great engineering and architectural skill to build along the mountain terrain. The Inca Empire was the largest nation on Earth when it was at its height and it still remains the largest native state to have existed in the western hemisphere. were they live Inca gold There were many Inca craftsmen in the Andes. They were expert architects who constructed stone walls. The artisans also made silver alpacas that show their great skills. The Inca craftsmen achieved a high degree of respect and honor because of their skills in arts and crafts. They sculpted pottery which featured geometric designs painted in black, red, brown, yellow, and white. Metalworkers make ornaments, tools, and weapons out silver, copper, gold, and bronze. They excelled at working metals like silver, copper, and gold. Female statues are found with Inca offerings to the gods. Because llamas were very protected in the Andean region, lots of stylized llama figures were made by metalworkers. >>> Inca art Inca weavers wove beautiful textiles from alpaca, llama, and vicuña wool and from cotton. The Inca were very famous for their ideas of handling and working materials they used for public buildings. The Inca used stones that weighed many tons in the building. The stones were brought by labors from quarries using rollers, wedges, ropes, and inclined planes. Another favorite of the Incas was music played on woodwinds (which include flutes and panpipes, and trumpets made of shell and ceramics) and drums. They played haunting melodies for ceremonies or just for fun.
 * [[image:http://www.organicroad.com.au/media/images/content/detail/inca_mix1-text428.jpg width="402" height="403"]][[image:http://coe.fgcu.edu/students/webb/meso/South_America.gif width="358" height="406"]]

The Inca warriors were forge by discipline, bravery and a deep invincible self-believe. The Incas training was focus to brainwash them during their training. This elite force was teach to don’t fear, never surrender in the battlefield and never feel alone because the gods protect his cause. Some archaeologist insists to show the Inca Empire like gentle, timid and talistic people. But the true is the Inca Empire was 100 percent military devoted fanatic people. The military training was compulsory and starts at 16 years old. The training was severe, they constantly select and test the soldiers, at the end they choose the ones that will became the Inca warriors elite force.
 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-warriors-elite-force.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca warriors elite force" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-art.html"]]The feathers in your helmet stand for your military rank.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/cuzco-inca-warrior.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="cuzco inca warrior" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-empire.html"]]Stone warrior at the Cuzco city gates, waiting to defend the Incas honor ones gain.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/elite-inca-warrior.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="elite inca warrior" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-education.html"]]This image gives you an idea of the fearless attitude of the warriors in battle.

The Incas celebrate the coming of summer, they celebrate a good harvest season and they celebrate ceremonies to honor their gods every year. But there is no celebration like when the Inca warriors came back from battle. They enter the city of Cusco screaming their victory and the entire city stops. The citizens honor the warriors offering them food, drink and taking care of their wounds.

The Inca brainwash to forget fear was deep, intense and for many years that gives the result of perfect fearless men. No feeling, no pain, no regret. His only presence, his self-confidence and their battle war scream was enough to scare the enemy armies. They were the proud holders of the Incas honor. The best documented Inca warriors fearless example, happen when the Spaniards ambush the last Inca king. The Inca king has 5000 warriors to protect him. The Spaniards start shooting them one by one, the warriors did not move. They stay protecting the Inca king. When they contra attach the Spaniards, the Spaniards attack them back with cavalry strikes; sprinkling warriors bodies in the horses path. They did not run they fight until the last one was death.

The Incas military schools ends with a mayor celebration call Huarachicu. The young cadet of the Inca army, receive from his mentor the Inca Weapons. Plus a metal badge, military uniform call Huara, military shoes call Ojotas and big earrings. The earrings will be the mark of his military status in the army. The Inca king himself was at the head of this celebration and in his final speech, the Inca king reminds them; the Inca warriors are fearless and never surrender.

The Incas advance weapons, the severe physical training and the advance military strategy, were the key of success in a war campaign. Before the Inca Empire exists, the people from the Inca tribes have no interest in the Inca nation. The Inca warriors traditions and first symptom of patriotism, nation and country conscience happen after the defeat of the eighth Inca Viracocha. The understanding begins during the war between the Inca Tribe and the Chancas tribe in 1410.

The Chancas attack the city of Cusco and after a fierce battle, the eighth Inca king Viracocha lost the city. The anguish facing danger has always been a great builder of collective soul. After the barbaric attack of the Chancas, the soul of the Inca warriors figure emerges on the hands of the young Inca prince Yupanqui. He reunifies the army, pick up the dropped Inca weapons and lead a suicide attack against the Chancas.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-prince-yupanqui.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca prince yupanqui" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-rulers.html"]]The Inca prince Yupanqui preparing a sacrifice for his god.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-general-ruminahui.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca general ruminahui" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/history-of-the-incas.html"]]Ruminahui was one of the 3 great generals of the Inca prince Yupanqui, his name mean eye of stone.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-warriors-discipline.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca warriors discipline" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-people.html"]]They remove fear from the minds of the Inca soldiers, because they brainwash them.

Few days after, the Inca prince Yupanqui return to his father Viracocha, holding in his hands the heads of the Chancas generals. The king Viracocha, in stage of shock, ask to the prince Yupanqui; how you did it? Then, the young and brave Inca prince Yupanqui tell the most beautifully and unbelievable war tells that has not been register in any historical book.

Right before the suicide attack to recover the city of Cusco, the Inca prince Yupanqui and his Inca warriors prepare a sacrifice for their god the sun. And suddenly, god himself speak to the prince Yupanqui, saying! I am with you my son. The prince Yupanqui feel the support of the IncaGods and lead the attack against the Chancas. As expected, the young prince saw how his warriors were dying quickly against the superiority of the Chancas army.

And when the defeat was clear, the Inca warriors felt how invisible new warriors were reinforcing their positions. Everybody in the battlefield felt how an estrange force weaken the Chancas. So the prince Yupanqui screams: The stones and plants from the battlefield are transforming into men and fighting you! Because the all mighty god sun had order it so. The Chancas lost the moral and afraid about the Inca gods power, abandon their weapons and run escaping from the remaining Inca army. So right then, the Inca empire was born.

= Where the Incas live, = We call them the Incas of Peru, though their rich empire stretched 3, 000 miles from Ecuador in the north to central Chile and the south and reached from the eastern slopes of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean. The Inca warriors conquered this vast territory‑in‑a single century arid they governed it from their capital city of Cuzco in Peru, The Incas governed well and did a great deal for their conquered peoples. Their encouraged farming and built great storehouses to supply food when famine struck in faraway places of the empire, They developed our everyday potato and did much to improve the quality of corn and sweet potatoes. Few Incas, however, chose to settle in the conquered territories and most of them remained in Peru where their descendants still live. =Inca Food=

The ingredients use to prepare the Inca food were ultra healthy, it's why the Incas have along life expectations. Archaeologist found bones of the Incas royal family with and estimated age of death of 100 years. The Incas eat a large variety of vegetables, roots and meat from different animals. Almost zero cholesterol and a life of daily healthy exercise on the fields growing their crops, was the formula for such long life expectations.

The Inca food vegetables are: The corn, the Incas use it to prepare bread, they boil it, it was use in soups and they use corn to prepare an alcoholic drink. The corn is originally from Mexico and we know that it arrive to Peru about 5000 ago. But it was the Inca agriculture techniques that make corn grow in altitudes up to 3600 meters over the sea level. The Zapallo (variety of pumpkin) was another vegetable. They boiled it, eat it in soups and stewed; it’s original from Peru but we have no date of when it was tame.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-corn.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca corn" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-agriculture.html"]]The Peruvian corn or Choclo it's the biggest corn of the world.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/sweet-potatoes.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="sweet potatoes" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/peruvian-people.html"]]In Peru you can buy chips made of sweet potatoes in all regular supermarkets.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-potato-hybrids.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca potato hybrids" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/peruvian-food.html"]]Olluco and dry meat of llama call Charqui are mix in a popular Peruvian dish.

The world most popular Inca food vegetable is the potato. The Andes have 4049 know varieties of potato and Peruvians use 2301 of the eatable varieties. The Incas boil potatoes and they use it in soups and stewed. The potato was tame more than 8000 years ago. During the taming of the potato, several hybrids have born, like for example, the Añus (variety of tuber). It’s bitter and you need to boil it to eat it. The Batata (sweet potato) is a hybrid as well, created from the potato about 5000 years ago.

The Inca food vegetables have many potato hybrids and they are: The Olluco (variety of tuber), great flavor and gummy consistency. They boil it, smashed, used in soups and stewed with dry llama meat. It was create from the potato about 5500 years ago, today you can find over 70 varieties of Ollucos in the Peruvian markets. The Oca (variety of tuber), is similar to the Olluco; it has an extraordinary resistance to plagues and temperature drop down or severe changes of climate. After the potato it’s the second most popular crop in the Andes today.

The Inca food most popular spices are: The Axi or Aji (Peruvian hot pepper), it has a spice fruity flavor; they are yellow, red and green. Today, it's the most popular spice for the Peruvian People, from the richest to the poorest. The Inca people use the Cuchuchu root to improve their digestion; they wash it and eat it uncooked. The Incas use the coca plant mainly when they need to work hard for some reason. They chewed the coca leaf which makes it act as a mild stimulant, suppressing hunger, thirst, pain and fatigue.

The seeds of the Inca food diet are: The Quinua (It's a pseudocereal), tame over 6000 years ago, it was the cereal of the Incas. Today it has been use for the NASA to feed the astronauts, due its great amount of protein and vitamins. The peanuts were tame by the Incas over 5000 years ago. They make oil from it and they toasted and eat it with honey. The Purutu and the Tarhui (variety of beans) were boil or stewed with alpaca or llama meat.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/cereal-of-the-incas.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="cereal of the incas" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/facts-about-peru.html"]]The Quinua is use in Peru to made sweet energy bars for children.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/inca-cuy.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="inca cuy" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-farming.html"]]The guinea pigs with baked potatoes still a delicious delicatessen in Peru.
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 * [[image:http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/image-files/lucuma-fruit.jpg width="190" height="260" caption="lucuma fruit" link="http://www.peru-travel-confidential.com/inca-trail.html"]]The Lucuma ice cream it’s the most popular ice cream flavor in Peru.

The fruits of the Inca food diet are: The Lucuma (subtropical fruit of the Andes), it was the most delicious Inca delicacy. Today, it's the most popular ice cream flavor in Peru. The Pepino (sweet pepino), it is sweet and contains 92 percent of water. The Guayabas (psidium guajava) original from Mexico, it arrives to Peru about 3500 years ago. The Sauintu (passion fruit) originally from the Andes, it was another Inca delicacy. The Incas eat bananas, pineapples and plums, as well.

The meat of the Inca food diet was: The Huanacos, Llamas and Alpacas (South American camelid). Inca Tribes hunt them over nine thousand years ago and they were tame about eight thousand years ago. The Cuy (guinea pig), it's original from the Andes and it was tame about 7000 years ago. The Incas describe a fish call Challua that has a big head and soft skin. They boil it or eat it in soups. Another fish describe by the Incas was a fish found in the Titicaca lake call Suchi. It was a big fish, difficult to capture; they usually fry it with its own fat.

We have described you few ingredients of the Inca food diet, some of them for sure you know them well. It’s sad that many people do not know the great contributions of the Inca culture and the cultures before them to the today’s world food supply. Think about it? Without the Incas we wouldn’t have potatoes for French fries, peanuts for peanut butter or corn for cornflakes; for sure today’s world will not be the same.



Inca men used to wear tunics which were knee length, grass shoes or leather sandals, headbands, headdresses, belts and bags. In the regions conquered by the inca, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the best weavers, were transfered to Cusco.

It looks like the inca goverment used to control the clothing given to their society, some of them would get one or two outfits and they would wear them literally until worn out. Clothing could not be change without permission of the goverment, that is why women used to spend long time trying to get a unique and distinctive hair style. The Incas ruled a great empire in South America - but only for a short time. At its peak the Incas Empire lasted less than a century before it was destroyed by the Spaniards. In about 1300 the Incas founded their capital city of Cuzco. They were only a small tribe but they came to rule a vast empire including most of Peru and parts of Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia and northwest Argentina. The expansion began in 1438 under their ruler Pachakuti and continued under his successors. INCA LIFE Inca Society At the top of Inca society was the emperor, the Sapa Inca. (His title means unique Inca). The Incas believed their ruler was descended from the sun god and he was treated with great respect. Visitors had to remove their footwear if they approached the Sapa Inca and they had to carry a burden on their back to show their respect for him. When he travelled the Sapa Inca was carried in a litter. Below the Sapa Inca were the nobles. Below them were a class of men called curacas. They were not necessarily Incas. When the Incas conquered a people they took the leader's sons and taught them to rule the Inca way. They then became curacas. At the bottom of Inca society were the craftsmen and farmers. Inca craftsmen made objects of gold, silver and copper. Stonemasons cut stone bricks for building using stone hammers and wet sand for polishing. Inca stone bricks fitted so closely they did not need mortar to hold them together. Every aspect of Inca life was highly organised. Each person's life was divided into stages. At each stage they were expected to different tasks. Naturally adults in their prime were expected to do the hardest work. Children and old people did the easiest tasks. All the people were part of extended families called Ayllus. Each one was ruled by a man called a curaca. In theory the Sapa Inca owned all the land and wealth in the empire. The Sapa Inca gave farmers land to grow food. In return they had to do some work for him. The Sapa Inca reserved some land for himself and some was set aside to support the temples and priests. The Inca farmers had to pay a kind of tax by working of the Sapa Inca's and temples land. Sometimes they also had to work on projects like building roads and bridges. Inca Government The Inca empire was like a pyramid with the Sapa Inca at the top. The empire was divided into 4 regions ruled by men called opas. Below them there were more layers of government. To help rule their vast empire the Incas created an efficient network of roads. The Incas also made rope suspension bridges. As well as the roads the Incas had messengers called chasquis. Messages were carried by relay. Groups of messengers lived in houses by main roads and at all times two of them kept lookout. If they saw another messenger approaching one of them would run to meet him. The two messengers would run together for a while and the message was passed on from one man to the other. Using this relay system messages could be sent over long distances very quickly. Inca messengers could take messages 240 kilometres in one day. Furthermore although they never invented writing the Incas kept records with a device called a quipu. It was a cord with strings of different thickness and colours hanging from it. Knots were tied at different positions in the strings. The colour and thickness of the strings and the positions of the knots all meant something. The Incas did not have prisons. Instead for serious crimes such as murder, stealing and blasphemy offenders were executed by being pushed off a cliff. Less serious crimes were punished by cutting off the hands or blinding. Inca Religion The Incas were polytheists (they worshipped several different gods). The most important god was Inti, the sun god. The Incas also worshipped Quilla the moon goddess, wife of the sun. They also worshipped Illapa god of thunder, who controlled the rain. The Incas had a host of priests and priestesses to serve their gods in temples throughout the empire. Priests were also surgeons who performed simple operations. Patients chewed coca leaves to dull the pain. Priests bit the heads of a type of ant and used the jaws as clips to close wounds. The Incas sometimes practised human sacrifice but it was rare. Inca Warfare Incas knew of the bow and arrow but they relied mainly on the sling and stone. It is a surprisingly accurate and deadly weapon. Incas did not have swords but in hand to hand fighting they used wooden clubs tipped with stone or bronze. Many Incas wore a costume of quilted cotton, which gave some protection against the wooden and stone weapons of other South American peoples. Some Inca soldiers also protected their backs and chests with plates of wood or metal. They also carried wooden shields. The Inca army was supplied by a network of storehouses. They also had stone fortresses on mountains. When the Incas killed their enemies they sometimes covered their skulls with gold and used them as drinking cups. They also made dead enemies teeth into necklaces and even made drums from human skin. To read a history of weapons click here. Inca Food In the lowlands the staple food was maize. In the highlands it was potatoes. Incas also ate peppers, tomatoes and avocadoes. They also ate peanuts and a grain called quinoa. Llamas and alpacas were kept for wool and for carrying loads but they sometimes provided meat. Incas also ate guinea pigs. They also fished and ate birds. However for most Incas meat was a luxury. Incas drank a fermented drink called chicha. Ordinary Incas drank from bowls carved from gourds. Rich Incas drank from pottery vessels or even ones made from gold or silver. Poor people ate off dishes placed on the ground. Inca nobles ate off a cloth on the ground. There were no tables. Inca farmers did not have ploughs pulled by animals. Instead their main tools were digging sticks, clod breakers and hoes. In hilly regions Inca farmers terraced the land. They also irrigated crops. Inca farmers also used bird droppings called guano as fertiliser. To read a history of food click here. Inca Houses Inca houses were very simple. They often consisted of just one room (although some houses did have an upper storey with a wooden floor). Inca homes did not have furniture. People sat and slept on reed mats or animal skins. Doors and windows were trapezium shaped. (A trapezium is a four-sided shape with only two parallel sides). Roofs were thatched and there were no chimneys. Rich Incas, of course, lived in much grander homes. Inca palaces sometimes had sunken stone baths. To read a history of houses click here.

Inca Clothes Incas made clothes from wool or (in warmer areas) from cotton. Ordinary people wore coarse alpaca wool but nobles wore fine vicuna wool. Inca men wore loincloths and tunics. Inca nobles wore gold ear plugs. Inca women wore a long dress with a cloak on top fastened with a brooch. Inca Children Inca children were treated harshly to toughen them. They were severely punished if they misbehaved. At about the age of 10 the most beautiful girls were selected to be chosen women or Aqllakuna. They were taken from their families and sent to a house of chosen women or Aqllawasi. They were taught the Inca religion and skills like cooking and weaving. When they were about 14 some of the girls became priestesses or they married important Incas or even the Sapa Inca himself (the Sapa Inca often had hundreds of wives). Girls left behind learned skills like cooking and weaving from their mothers. When they reached their teens they were old enough to marry. Boys learned farming, fishing and other trades. Noble boys had tutors called Amataus who trained them to rule. When they reached the age of 14 boys were given a loincloth which symbolised the fact that they were now young men. To read a history of children click here. THE CONQUISTADORS The Inca Empire was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors (conquerors). Even before the Conquistadors arrived smallpox began to spread among the Incas. They had no resistance to this European disease and many of them died. So the Inca Empire was weakened even before Pizarro came. Worse the Inca Empire was afflicted by a civil war. When the emperor Huayna died in 1527 he did not name a successor. There were two claimants to the throne. Huayana had many wives. His 'chief' wife or coya had a son called Huascar. However he had an older brother called Atahualpa. His mother was one of Huyana's 'ordinary' wives. The two half-brothers Huascar and Atahualpa fought a civil war. Atahualpa eventually won and he wreaked a terrible revenge on his enemies. However when the Spaniards came Atahualpa's surviving enemies were willing to join them against the emperor. In 1532 a small force of Spaniards, 100 infantry and 67 cavalrymen arrived on the coast. They were led by Francisco Pizarro (c.1475-1541). At first the Spaniards inspected the country then they entered a town called Cajamarca. Atahualpa was staying in a camp nearby. Atahualpa was not afraid of the small group of strangers. After all he had thousands of soldiers at his command. However Pizarro planned to kidnap him. Atahualpa and several thousand bodyguards entered a square in the town. There were only a few entrances to the square, which were easily blocked. Furthermore the Spaniards hid guns in the buildings around the square. A Spanish friar (friars were like monks) approached the Sapa Inca and offered him a bible. Atahualpa had never seen a book before and he threw it onto the ground. Angrily the friar called on the Spaniards to avenge what he thought was an insult to God. The Spanish fired cannons and muskets and the cavalry charged. (Incas had never seen horses before and the sight of a man charging on a horse must have been terrifying). The Spaniards were also protected by steel armour and they carried steel swords. (Steel was a metal unknown to the Incas). The bodyguards had little chance against the Spaniards and thousands were slaughtered in the square. Atahualpa himself was taken prisoner. The Inca Empire was rather like a pyramid with the Sapa Inca at the top. Orders flowed from him. Capturing him was rather like cutting the head from a body. Without him the Incas did not know what to do. Eventually Atahualpa offered to fill a large room with gold and a small room with silver twice over if the Spaniards would let him go. In the meantime Spanish reinforcements arrived. However when the gold and silver was collected Pizarro had no intention of letting the Sapa Inca go. He claimed that Atahualpa was plotting against him and the Sapa Inca was tried for treason and sentenced to death. At first he was sentenced to be burned. Atahualpa was horrified because he believed his spirit would be destroyed if his body was burned and he could not enter the afterlife. Instead he agreed to be baptised a Christian and he was strangled with a rope. The Spaniards then ruled through a puppet, which they made the Sapa Inca. However the puppet Sapa Inca soon became disenchanted and he fled from Cuzco. In 1536 he raised armies to besiege both Cuzco and Lima (which the Spaniards founded in 1535). However both sieges failed. The Incas besieged Cuzco again in 1537 but again failed. However Inca resistance did not end. The puppet Sapa Inca fled to the east of Cuzco with his supporters and ruled a small Inca state called Vicambamba. It was finally conquered by the Spaniards in 1572. First of all a little remark. The Incas are not all the people like we are used to understand if we talk about the Mayas or the Romans. The Incas are essentialy the leading class, the emperor's family that came into existance by the mythological ancestors and founders Manca Capac and Mama Occla. Because of the many children families had in these times and by elevating other families to noblicity because of their courage, cooperation or wealth, occupied this leading class the entire city of Cusco. The absolute leader of wich we would call him the Emperor, was called the "Sapa Inca", Quechua for 'the Only Inca'. His first wife was usually his full sister who was then called the Qolla and he married an extensive number of princesses who came usually from the Houses of the Sun (some kind of monestry) which helps explaining why the emperor and others from the high noblicity has such a great number of childeren. If we use the word 'Inca' we refere to this leading class families only from who the Sapa Inca was by far the most important member. In the beginning they ruled only over Cusco but in less than a century they controlled an empire streching from Quito (Equador) up to Santiago de Chile and Patagonia in Argentina. So to avoid saying every time 'the people ruled by the Incas' we will simply use the Quechua meaning "Sapa Inca" and his entourage. The Incas and what they once represented in world history is sadly underestimated by, and even unknown to, the western world. Although they have a lot to teach us on the fields of sociology, politics, religion and their overall cosmology. We only remember they were conquered by a handful Spanish soldiers lead by Francisco Pizarro, and that they owned 'mountains' of gold and silver as pieces of art in temples, palaces and many other places. We also know that the Incas left us one of the most important monuments to mankind, known as Machu Picchu and Sacsayhuamán. We can only guess about the beauty Cusco ever had, the capital of Tawaintisuyu, after the looting and burning down the city mid 16th century little has survived the test of time. Nevertetheless, a lot is still visable of their robust buildings Inca-style where on top the Spanish constructed their typical colonial houses and haciendas. These Inca-wall are earthquake resistant and has various times saved these Spanish houses using the Inca-construction as a foundation. The independance of the Incas in their evolution from any influence of the Western world can teach us a lot about how complex societies can evolve and be organized as also the wonderful inguinity in creating a balance between the different tribes putting together Tawaintisuyu. And there was not only this unity between very different people that were implemented in their empire, often without the use of war or corruption, they also created unity on the political, historical, artistical and cosmological fields. As a binding factor all these different tribes and people were united and inspired by their needs perfectly understood by the Inca-rulers. The Incas gave the newly addopted tribes the illusion they were send by the god of the Sun virracocha himself to unite all people and to bring peace in a highly-developed empire. They didn't achieve this only by words but of course by deeds, golden deeds, by wich many smaller civilizations voluntary joined the Inca empire. Then a Virgin of the Sun was usually married to the chief of the tribe or civilization to mix their local blood with that of a divine source. It shouldn't be a surprise why the people of the Incas worshipped the Sun (the Inti) and saw the ruling class as a reflexion of the god of Creation, the Virracocha. In my opinion is the accepted view that the commited atrocities like human sacrifices nothing more than stories brought home by the conquistadores just to justify their own crimes to humanity. Crimes that were backed-up by the Roman Church and in name of Christ that was in reality their furious search for gold and silver throughout the New World. Even today one can still recognize the struggle of the Indians against injustice brought to them by the "modern world", such as social inequality, poverty or simply the right to be an Indian as we see today asked by the Zapatistas in Mexico.

What does Tawaintisuyu mean? Tawaintisuyu is composed out of three different words: > **Tawa**: four, the cardial points, the four elements**Inti**: the Sun, the Father of Life, the King of Stars**Suyu**: land, border A different kind of spelling often used is Tawanintinsuyu, in fact, this world is more oftenly used as Tawaintisuyu but we prefere the latter because it correspondents perfectly with the Quechua meaning of the word. The Spanish were masters in bastardizing existing words en toponyms to their own. For example the name of the new capital city founded by the conquistadores: Lima comes from the name of the river running through it called by the Indians 'Rimac', and the name of the land itself: Peru, comes from the word they learned from the Aztecs: Piru, meaning 'the land of gold far south'. The four lands or provinces or Suyus were: Chinchaysuyu, Kontisuyu, Antisuyu and Kollasuyu. Chinsaysuyu is the part up to Equador, Antisuyu forming the border with the immence Amazon Basin, Kontisuyu was Southwest of Cusco up to the Pacific and South of Cusco up to the Lake Titicaca was Kollasuyu, including big parts of Chile, Argentina and the whole of Bolivia. In the centre of the four Suyus one found the mayestic city of Cusco from where the expansion of their empire began around 1438 by Inca Pachacuti.

Where do we get the information from to reconstruct life and organization of Tawaintisuyu? The Incas didn't have a handwriting as we know it now but there were some ways of transferring and recording information unique to any other civilization, a kind of writing they have engineered to maintain their administration and to transport all kind of messages. All statistics were kept in Cusco, the Incas knew exactly who in the empire was doing what and what was needed to improve their system. For the administration the quipu was used to transfer all kind of valuable information. Another writing that hasn't been deciphered was the bean writing. Because the Incas didn't have a handwriting like we know it, they didn't keep any records of their history that can be understood by todays archeologists, it is very difficult to reproduce a chronological order of the history of Tawaintisuyu. Who were the founders and successors, how was it possible to expand their empire to such dimentions in less than 100 years? What is left for our times to help answering these questions are to many legends still kept and hand over to next generations in the high Andes and of course the writings of chronical writers (mostly monks) and the very important writings of the half-blood Spanjard Inca Garcilaso de la Vega in his book "Comentarios Reales". He was the sun of an the Incas-princess with the Spanish captain Garcilaso. He tells the story of what he still remembers of his childhood when he was still living in Cusco. He wrote the book between 1589 and 1616 when he died, in these times he lived in Madrid, his adult life in Europe brought him only desilusion and sorrow. He left Cusco as a young boy and never returned to his country of birth.
 * [[image:http://www.infoperu.com/pics/history/inca_b1.gif width="512" height="280"]] ||
 * The quipus were a very important way of communication to maintain the administration of the empire carried out in Cusco. The Inca-rulers knew exactly how many people lived where, how many land they needed for farming, how old every citizen was, etc etc. ||
 * [[image:http://www.infoperu.com/pics/history/texbest.jpg width="231" height="281"]] || This very fine piece of textile was probably part of attire of an Inca noblicity. We can see the bean writings on it, as we found them also on vases, graves and inside pots writen on bean. Till today we still don't understan their meaning. ||

Other significant chroniclers were Bartolomé de las Casas, Pedro Cieza de Leon and Cristobal de Molina. In later periods we find Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa with his story about the history of the Incas. Because of the inquisition and the burning of books as a result of the people's revolt in Peru against the occupation, many writings were lost forever. The royal house in Madrid connected the writings of the Incas to what almost lead to a civil war and ordered the destruction of all works about their ancesters. Stories were forgotten, books were lost and archeology didn't yet exist. Only 400 years later a unique work of Garcilaso was found back in the state library of Danmark. Altough the "Comentarios Reales" is the best known and most refered work about the Incas, archeologists have modified and corrected a lot of Garcilaso's memories in recent times. For example, it seems that Garcilaso has shifted all the time the reign of an Inca with that of his successor. Because of this, all descriptions in his book are 20 to 40 years behind scedule. Garcilaso based his memories on what has been taught to him as a child by his uncle, who told the history of the Incas as generally accepted in Tawaintisuyu before the conquista, stories that contain more legends than facts. His uncle was the eldest and only survivor of the core of the Inca family who were all murdered by the Conquistadores in a matter of a few years. When Garcilaso was born, the Inca-empire fell in Spanish hands 6 years before that. To reproduce the history of the Incas and their meaning in Tawaintisuyu we will base ourselves on the excellent books of the Peruvian archeologist and historian Waldemar Espinoza Soriana, specially his book "Los Incas" and "La Destrucción del Imperio de los Incas". Los Incas tells about the history of the empire, how it all started, wich Incas ruled and what they did, how they organized society, politics, religion and expansion while "La Destrucción del Imperio de los Incas" tells the sad story of how the empire came to an end, starting with the civel war between the two brothers Atahualpa and Huascar up to the almost total extermination of a golden cul Greetings my fellow historians! //History in Action// has been out of commission for a little while. Things got real nasty at a little get together at the New York Historical Society. Let’s just say yours truly isn’t going to be getting any Christmas cards from Doris Kearns Goodwin! Now, let’s get onto the pudding that fills your pot, today’s entry! In grade school, many of us learn the history of the famous Native American tribes: the Aztecs, the Mayans, and the Incas. Reality check, not everything you learn in history class is “on the level.” Grab those dusty history mitts, march out to left field, it’s time to catch some “history flies!” > > ** In ** **ca Trail 4 day Trek Itinerary.** (Classic Inca Trail Trek - moderate) > This is the most popular route trekked by hundreds of visitors each day. This beautiful trail starts at kilometre 82 (so called because it is 82 km along the railroad from Cusco) and takes in many of the Inca ruins including Runcuracay, Sayacmarca, Phuyupatamarca, Wiñay Wayna and of course Machu Picchu. Because this route is the most popular you can easily find a tour operator with groups leaving everyday that you can join. Joining a group works out much cheaper than a private service. Approximate price of a basic group service is between US$450 and US$550 per person. A group service is when a trekking company advertises a fixed departure date and pools all of their clients together. This means that you will be trekking with other people from different parts of the world which can be great fun. The maximum group size is limited to 16 persons. This offers the most economical way to do the Inca Trail. The price for a private service depends on how many people there are in your group but expect to pay around US$850 per person for a very small group of between 2 and 4 persons. Prices may drop to around US$500 per person if you have a large group of friends. Trek permit necessary so book well in advance. > > **Inca Trail 5 day Trek Itinerary** (Classic Inca Trail Trek - moderate) > This itinerary follows the same route as 4 day trek. However you have the opportunity to visit the ruins of Llactapata where you will probably camp on the first night. You'll also camp at different less crowded campsites during your trek. Although you will probably arrive at Machu Picchu in the afternoon of the fourth day of the trek you will usually camp down in the Urubamba valley (or possibly stay at a hotel in Aguas Calientes) before returning to Machu Picchu for sunrise on the fifth day. You'll still be walking 12-15 km per day on days 2, 3 & 4 of the trail so it is not to be regarded as an easy option. This itinerary is not as popular as the 4 day version so you will probably have to take a private trek which is fine if you have a group of friends but can be expensive if there are just the 2 of you. Price for a basic private group depends on how many people there are in your group but expect to pay around US$900 per person for a very small group of between 2 and 4 persons. Prices may drop to around US$600 per person if you have a large group of friends. Trek permit necessary so book well in advance. > > **Inca Trail 2 day Trek Itinerary** (Sacred Trail - easy / moderate) > This is a less strenuous route and starts at kilometre 104 along the railroad from Cusco. The trail climbs up to Wiñay Wayna where you join the final stages of the Classic 4 day hike. From Wiñay Wayna the trek then descends to Machu Picchu. This is a good option for visitors with limited time or who are not fit enough to complete the 4 day version. The trek has the advantage of allowing you to visit the beautiful ruins at Wiñay Wayna and also to experience at least part of the Inca trail. Unlike the 4 day trek you do not need to be acclimatised to undertake the 2 day trek since the trail is at a lower altitude. Many tour operators have daily group departures on this trek. Approximate price of a basic group service is between US$300 and US$350 per person. Price for a basic private group of just 2 persons is about US$450-500 per person. Trek permit necessary so book well in advance. > > **Salkantay / Inca Trail 7 day Itinerary** (moderate / difficult) > A spectacular 7 day trek that passes beneath the sacred snow-capped mountain of Salkantay. This mountain God (or Apu) was worshipped by the Incas and is still honoured by existing Quechua farmers. The trail starts in the warm citrus valley near Mollabamba and eventually joins the Classic Inca trail route at Wayllabamba on the fourth day. The route involves some high passes which can be bitterly cold during the months of June and July. However the trek combines the best of mountain scenery with the Inca ruins of Runcuracay, Sayacmarca, Phuyupatamarca and Wiñay Wayna before arriving at the citadel of Machu Picchu for sunrise on the final day of the trek. You need to acclimatise in Cusco for a couple of days prior to starting this trek. Some tour operators have fixed departure dates for this trek. The approximate price of a group service is between US$650 and US$800 depending on the size of the group. Price for a basic private group of just 2 persons is between US$1000 and US$1200 per person (the price is a lot cheaper the more friends you have in your group). Trek permit necessary so book well in advance.
 * The Aztecs**
 * The Aztec empire was located in what is today known as “Mexico.” They were incredibly advanced agriculturally, having developed irrigation methods well before their European counterparts. Though the empire was vast and wealthy, many Aztecs would flee their country for the possibility of employment in the “new world.”
 * Ritualistic sacrifice was known to have taken place in the Aztec empire. Some estimates suggest as many as 84,000 were once killed during a four day period. Puts the Iraq war numbers into perspective, huh?
 * Games were especially important to the Aztecs. They played a sport akin to the Mesoamerican ballgame named //tlachtli// or //ollamaliztli//. It was a furious sport combining the athleticism of basketball, the brutality of football, and the strategy of baseball. However scoring was very low so it was really boring.
 * Aztecs used common items like cocoa beans and cotton for currency. When Europeans were handed the cocoa in exchange for goods they ate the cocoa thinking this was the custom. The Aztecs in turn would ingest European coins and paper money. The Europeans would laugh and the Aztecs would stare back embarrassed, sometimes crying out of shame. Eventually the Europeans, led by Hernando Cortés, would slaughter the Aztecs not ravaged by Smallpox.
 * Mayans**
 * The Mayans were incredibly advanced scientifically. They developed many concepts before their European counterparts. Such concepts and advancements included absolute zero, telepathy, “to be continued…” episodes, and post-rock, and irrigation.
 * Mayan art was especially skillful and renown in foreign lands. Of particular note was the attention made to the depiction of female breasts. Large, drooping bosoms were considered a sign of fertility in Maya. Lopsided, turned out breasts were even more attractive, as well as those bespectacled by acne and hair. Take that, Hefner!
 * Like the Aztecs, the Mayans sacrificed humans, including children who they believed to be pure. Too bad they didn’t have Dateline’s “To Catch a Predator” on the case!
 * Incas**
 * The Incas dominated a large area of land in what is now modern day Peru. They lacked a written language, but were pioneers in early phonograph recordings, predating Thomas Edison by hundreds of years. Early Inca 45s are prized by music snobs for their raw production value. They can fetch up to twenty bucks on eBay.
 * Francisco Pizarro is believed to have conquered the Incas with 180 men, 1 cannon and only 27 horses. He often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. Try that against a suicide bomber in Iraq!!! Inca Trail - Route Options